Nancy Virda : "Politics, Religion, and Allegory in John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel"

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Title: Power, Politics, and Poetry: An Introduction to Absalom and Achitophel

1.1 Introduction

John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel (1681) is more than just a poetic retelling of a biblical story it is one of the most brilliant examples of political satire in English literature. Written during a time of intense political turmoil in Restoration England, the poem uses allegory to comment on contemporary events, particularly the Exclusion Crisis, while showcasing Dryden’s masterful command of heroic couplets and biting wit. This blog post offers an accessible introduction to Absalom and Achitophel, unpacking its political context and literary artistry for the general academic readers.

here is notebooklm:

Power, Politics and poetry

here is mind-maping:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1xK1obYoQimSAmLlKMezksj9YLojDcztN/view?usp=sharing

1.1.1. Political Context: Allegory and the Exclusion Crisis

The poem is set against the backdrop of the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681), a political movement aimed at preventing the Catholic James, Duke of York, from succeeding his brother Charles II to the English throne. Protestants feared that James’s accession would lead to the return of Catholic absolutism. The Whig party, led by the Earl of Shaftesbury, championed the Exclusion Bill, while the Tories (including Dryden) supported hereditary succession and royal authority.

Dryden responds to this crisis by casting historical figures into biblical roles. King David represents Charles II, while the rebellious Absalom symbolizes Charles’s illegitimate (but Protestant) son, the Duke of Monmouth, whom the Whigs favored as a Protestant heir. Achitophel, the cunning instigator, stands for Shaftesbury, depicted as manipulative and power-hungry.

Through this allegory, Dryden defends the divine right of kings and warns against the dangers of rebellion disguised as reform. The poem ultimately supports royal authority, suggesting that political stability should trump religious or ideological purity.

1.1.2. Literary Features: Heroic Couplets and Satirical Sharpness

Dryden’s use of the heroic couplet rhymed pairs of iambic pentameter lines is central to the poem’s style. The form allows for both elegance and epigrammatic sharpness, enabling Dryden to deliver political critique with poetic flair. For example:

"Great wits are sure to madness near allied,
And thin partitions do their bounds divide".

This famous couplet exemplifies Dryden’s skill at crafting memorable, pointed lines that transcend their immediate political context.

His language oscillates between high seriousness and scathing satire. Achitophel is described with ironic admiration, as a brilliant but dangerous rhetorician, echoing contemporary fears of demagogues manipulating public opinion.

Moreover, Dryden complicates his satire by portraying Absalom (Monmouth) with sympathy. Though misguided, he is not malevolent a gesture that reflects both Dryden’s personal caution and the complex loyalties of the time.

1.1.3. Why It Still Matters

Absalom and Achitophel is not just a historical artifact; it continues to resonate as a case study in how literature can engage with politics. Its themes legitimacy, populism, manipulation, and rebellion are still relevant in today’s political climate.

1.2. Absalom and Achitophel as a Verse Satire

A satire is a type of writing that criticizes people, politics, or society by making fun of them in a clever or witty way. The writer doesn’t just attack for no reason; instead, satire is often meant to teach a lesson or warn people about certain dangers, like greed, foolishness, or bad leadership. A verse satire means that the satire is written in the form of poetry, using rhythm and rhyme. So, Absalom and Achitophel is a poem that criticizes political figures and events using clever and poetic language.

Dryden wrote this poem in 1681 during a time of political trouble in England. The big issue was called the Exclusion Crisis. Many people wanted to stop King Charles II’s brother, James, from becoming king because he was Catholic, and they feared he might try to bring back Catholic rule in England. A group of politicians, called the Whigs, wanted to make Charles’s illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, the next king instead. Dryden, however, supported the idea of keeping the rightful heir and defending the monarchy.

To speak out against the Whigs and their leaders, Dryden used a clever trick. He wrote the poem as a Bible story, using characters from the Book of Samuel, but each character actually represents someone from Dryden’s time.

King David stands for King Charles II.

Absalom, David’s son who rebels against him, stands for the Duke of Monmouth.

Achitophel, the advisor who pushes Absalom to rebel, stands for Shaftesbury, the leader of the Whigs.

By using these Bible characters, Dryden could safely talk about political events without directly naming the people involved. This was important because criticizing powerful people openly could be dangerous. Using allegory (a story where characters and events represent real-life things) allowed Dryden to express his views in a smart and poetic way.

The poem is written in heroic couplets, which means two lines of ten syllables each that rhyme. This form was very popular in Dryden’s time, and he used it to sound serious, elegant, and even a bit dramatic. The rhythm of the poem makes it easier to remember and gives the arguments more power.

But even though the poem sounds elegant, it is filled with sharp and clever attacks on Dryden’s political enemies. He describes Achitophel (Shaftesbury) as someone who is clever but dangerous, using his skills to trick and stir up the people for his own gain. He shows Absalom (Monmouth) as someone who is good-looking and popular, but also too young and easily influenced. This makes readers feel sorry for him, but also shows that he is not the right person to be king.

Dryden also warns that trying to remove the rightful king, even for religious or political reasons, can lead to rebellion, war, and the breakdown of society. So, even though the poem is funny and clever in places, it has a very serious message: support the king, and don’t be fooled by smooth talking politicians.

In the end, Absalom and Achitophel is a brilliant example of verse satire because it:

Uses poetry and rhyme to sound polished and powerful,
Uses a Bible story to talk about real-life political events,
Uses humor, irony, and clever language to criticize real people,
Sends a strong political message in a smart and creative way.

Dryden shows that poetry isn’t just for love and beauty it can also be a tool for political argument and social criticism. Even though the events of the poem happened over 300 years ago, the ideas it talks about power, leadership, loyalty, and betrayal are still important today.

1.3. The Second Part of Absalom and Achitophel (1682)

After the great success of the first part of Absalom and Achitophel in 1681, a second part was published the following year, in 1682. While the first part was written entirely by John Dryden, the second part was mostly written by another poet, Nahum Tate. However, Dryden still had an important role he contributed about 200 lines to this second part, which he used to attack his literary enemies.

David as King Charles II,
Absalom as the Duke of Monmouth,
Achitophel as the Earl of Shaftesbury (a key Whig leader).

By the time the second part came out in 1682, the political crisis had calmed down a little, but tensions were still high. Shaftesbury had recently been released from prison (he had been charged with treason but not convicted), and the danger of rebellion still hung in the air. The Whigs had suffered some setbacks, and the Tories wanted to keep public opinion on their side. The second part of the poem helped do that.

1.3.1. Nahum Tate’s Role

Nahum Tate, a younger poet and strong supporter of the king, wrote most of the second part. He continued the story, using the same allegorical style telling a biblical tale that reflects real political events. Like Dryden, Tate portrayed the king’s enemies as rebellious, selfish, and dangerous, warning readers that challenging the rightful ruler could lead to chaos.

Although Tate didn’t have the same poetic power as Dryden, he did a good job imitating Dryden’s style and supporting the same political message.

1.3.2. Why the Second Part Is Important

The second part of Absalom and Achitophel continues the political argument of the first part, reminding readers of the dangers of rebellion and the importance of loyalty to the king. But it also adds something new: it shows how literary battles were deeply connected to politics in Dryden’s time.

By attacking his rivals in verse, Dryden was defending not only his own reputation but also the Tory political cause. His poetry wasn’t just about art it was a weapon in a larger fight for control over the future of England.

Even though Nahum Tate wrote most of the second part, Dryden’s 200 lines stand out as some of the most powerful satire in the poem. They show his skill as a poet and his sharp mind as a political commentator.

1.4. Historical and Political Background

To understand why this second part was written, it’s important to remember the political crisis that was happening in England at the time. This was the period known as the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681), when people were debating who should succeed King Charles II.

Many members of Parliament, especially the Whigs, wanted to exclude the king’s Catholic brother, James, Duke of York, from becoming king, because they feared he would bring back Catholic rule. Instead, they supported Charles’s illegitimate but Protestant son, the Duke of Monmouth, as the next king.

This situation caused a lot of political tension and division. Dryden, who supported the Tories (the party that defended the king and his lawful successor), wrote the first part of Absalom and Achitophel as a way to defend the king and attack his enemies. In it, he used biblical characters to represent real people:

David as King Charles II,
Absalom as the Duke of Monmouth,
Achitophel as the Earl of Shaftesbury (a key Whig leader).

1.4.1. Dryden’s Contribution: Attacking His Literary Rivals

Even though Dryden only wrote about 200 lines in the second part, they are some of the most powerful and memorable. This time, instead of focusing just on political leaders, Dryden took aim at his literary enemies other writers who had attacked him personally or supported the Whigs.

In these lines, Dryden mocked several writers by giving them biblical names and describing them as foolish, talentless, or dishonest. Some of the writers he targeted included:

Thomas Shadwell : a poet and playwright Dryden disliked deeply. He is shown as a dull, talentless man who tries to appear important but is really just full of pride and nonsense.
Elkanah Settle : another rival writer, portrayed as someone who tried to rise in politics through flattery and weak poetry.
Samuel Pordage : a writer who supported the Whigs, mocked for his lack of real skill.

Dryden uses his usual sharp wit and poetic style to ridicule these men, calling out their bad writing, political dishonesty, and attempts to gain fame. This wasn't just personal it was part of a larger political and literary battle. In those days, poetry and writing were powerful tools, and attacking someone in verse could influence public opinion.

1.5. The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681) and Absalom and Achitophel

John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel is a political satire written during the time of the Exclusion Crisis, a major political conflict in England between 1679 and 1681. The poem is not just a Bible story in verse it is actually about this real historical event, and Dryden uses the story to comment on it.

1.5.1. What Was the Exclusion Crisis?

The Exclusion Crisis was a political struggle about who should become the next king of England. At the time, King Charles II was on the throne, but he had no legitimate children. According to the laws of succession, his younger brother, James, Duke of York, was next in line to become king.

However, James had converted to Roman Catholicism, which caused great fear among many people in England. Most English citizens were Protestants, and they worried that if a Catholic became king, he might:

Take away their religious freedoms
Bring back Catholic rule
Or try to rule like an absolute monarch (as in Catholic France).

Because of these fears, a political group called the Whigs tried to pass a law known as the Exclusion Bill. This bill was meant to exclude James, Duke of York, from the royal line of succession. In other words, they wanted to stop him from becoming king.

On the other side were the Tories, who supported the traditional rights of kings and believed that James had a legal right to the throne, regardless of his religion.

1.5.2. Absalom and Achitophel as a Response to the Crisis

John Dryden, a strong supporter of the monarchy and the Tory viewpoint, wrote Absalom and Achitophel in 1681 as a direct response to the Exclusion Crisis.

In the poem, Dryden uses allegory, which means he tells a biblical story where the characters symbolize real people from his time. This allowed him to criticize his political enemies and support the king in a way that was clever and poetic.

1.5.3. Here’s how the allegory works:

King David in the poem represents King Charles II.
Absalom, David’s handsome and popular son who is persuaded to rebel, represents James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate (but Protestant) son of Charles II. Many Whigs wanted Monmouth to replace James, Duke of York, as heir to the throne.
Achitophel, the advisor who encourages Absalom to rebel, represents Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, the leader of the Whig party and the main figure behind the Exclusion Bill.

Just like in the Bible story, Achitophel (Shaftesbury) uses flattery and ambition to convince Absalom (Monmouth) to rise against King David (Charles II). Dryden presents Shaftesbury as dangerous, manipulative, and power-hungry, while Monmouth is portrayed as young, charming, and easily misled. Dryden uses this biblical parallel to show how wrong and harmful the attempt to change the succession was. He argues that it could lead to rebellion, civil war, and the destruction of the kingdom.

1.5.4. Dryden’s Message

Through Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden delivers a clear political message:

The king’s authority should be respected.
The line of succession should not be changed based on religion or popular opinion.
Those who stir rebellion in the name of “freedom” may actually bring chaos and division.

The poem supports the Tory belief in the divine right of kings and criticizes the Whigs for trying to use public fear of Catholics for their own political gain.

1.5.5. In Short

The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681) was about stopping James, Duke of York, a Catholic, from becoming king.

The Whigs supported the Exclusion Bill, while the Tories (like Dryden) opposed it.

In Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden uses a biblical story to represent real people and events.

King David = Charles II
Absalom = Duke of Monmouth
Achitophel = Earl of Shaftesbury

The poem warns that rebelling against the rightful king leads to danger and disorder. Dryden uses poetry to defend the monarchy and criticize those who threaten it.

John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel (1681) is more than just a biblical story told in verse it’s a political poem written during a time of real fear and political crisis in England. To fully understand the poem, we need to look at some important events from that time: the Popish Plot (1678), the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681), and the Monmouth Rebellion (1685). These events all shaped Dryden’s thinking and gave him strong motivation to write the poem.

1.6. The Popish Plot (1678): Spreading Fear and Stirring Division

The Popish Plot was a fake conspiracy invented in 1678 by a man named Titus Oates. He claimed that there was a secret Catholic plan to assassinate King Charles II so that his Catholic brother, James, Duke of York, could take the throne and turn England into a Catholic country.

This story was completely false, but many people believed it. As a result:

Panic and fear spread across the country.
Many innocent Catholics were arrested and executed.
It created a deep distrust of Catholics and increased the push to exclude James from the royal succession.

Dryden makes reference to this atmosphere of fear in Absalom and Achitophel. Although he does not describe the Popish Plot in great detail, the poem reflects how lies and rumors (like the ones spread by Titus Oates and the Whigs) were used to turn people against the king and his brother.

In the poem, characters like Achitophel (representing Shaftesbury) are shown as cunning manipulators who use public fear just like the fear created by the Popish Plot to gain political power and stir rebellion. Dryden warns that such actions could lead to disorder, violence, or even civil war.

1.7. The Monmouth Rebellion (1685): Rebellion Becomes Reality

Although it happened four years after the poem was published, the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 is directly connected to the story Dryden tells.

1.7.1. In real history:

After Charles II died in 1685, James, Duke of York, became King James II.
A few months later, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth (Charles’s illegitimate Protestant son) led a rebellion against his uncle, claiming he was the rightful king.
Monmouth’s rebellion failed, and he was captured and executed for treason.

Dryden’s poem almost predicts this event. In Absalom and Achitophel, Monmouth is represented as Absalom, a beloved but misguided son who is influenced by bad advice and tempted into rebellion. Dryden warns that this kind of action challenging the king’s authority can only lead to tragedy. The rebellion in 1685 proved Dryden’s point: rebellion against lawful rule leads to bloodshed and loss, not freedom.

1.8. Dryden’s Political Motivation: Defending the Monarchy Against Revolution

Dryden wrote Absalom and Achitophel in 1681, right in the middle of the Exclusion Crisis. At that time, England was in real danger of falling into revolution. The Whigs, led by Shaftesbury, were trying to pass a law (the Exclusion Bill) to block James, Duke of York, from becoming king because he was Catholic.

Dryden strongly disagreed with this. He believed in the divine right of kings that kings are chosen by God, and their right to rule should not be questioned. He also feared that if Parliament could change the line of succession, it would weaken the monarchy and lead to chaos.

1.8.1. His main purpose in writing the poem was to:

Support King Charles II,
Defend James, Duke of York’s right to succeed the throne,
Attack the political leaders (like Shaftesbury) who were pushing for revolution,
And warn the public that these actions could lead to civil war and destruction just like what had happened during the English Civil War in the 1640s.

Dryden uses satire, allegory, and poetry to get this serious political message across. He shows how ambitious politicians use religious fear (like the Popish Plot) to manipulate the public. He presents rebellion (like Monmouth’s future uprising) as dangerous and tragic.

1.9. Key themes

1.9.1. Politics, Allegory, and Satire

Dryden’s poem is a political allegory of the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681), when the Whigs tried to exclude James, Duke of York (a Catholic), from the line of succession.

He disguises real political figures under biblical names:

David = King Charles II

Absalom = James Scott, Duke of Monmouth (Charles’s illegitimate son)

Achitophel = Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury (leader of the Whigs).

The poem is also a satire, mocking the opposition and portraying them as cunning, ambitious, or foolish. Dryden uses wit, irony, and sharp character sketches to ridicule the Whig leaders while justifying Charles’s decisions.

1.9.2. God, Religion, and the Divine Right of Kings

Dryden defends the divine right of kings the belief that monarchs rule by God’s will.

David (Charles II) is presented as God’s chosen ruler, a king whose authority should not be questioned.

By contrast, those who rebel against him (Achitophel and his allies) are depicted as enemies of both monarchy and religion.

Religion also plays a role in the Popish Plot hysteria (1678) that fueled suspicion of Catholics. Dryden satirizes how religious fears were manipulated for political gain.

1.9.3. Power and Ambition

Absalom (Monmouth) symbolizes misguided ambition though beloved by the people and encouraged by Achitophel, his claim to the throne is illegitimate.

Achitophel (Shaftesbury) represents dangerous political ambition: a manipulative schemer willing to exploit Absalom’s popularity for his own ends.

Dryden contrasts this with David (Charles), who embodies restraint and lawful authority, showing how unchecked ambition threatens stability.

1.10. The Allegorical Framework of Absalom and Achitophel

Dryden exploits this uncertainty to present MonmouFunction of the Allegory Provides a protective disguise for Dryden’s political commentary.

Reinforces the idea of the Divine Right of Kings, showing rebellion as sinful and doomed.

Allows Dryden to praise Charles II and satirize Shaftesbury and the Whigs within a respected biblical frame.

1.10.1. Biblical Foundation

In the Bible:

Absalom, King David’s handsome and popular son, is persuaded by the cunning counselor Achitophel to rebel against his father.

Absalom’s rebellion fails, ending in his tragic death, while David’s kingship remains secure.

Dryden uses this narrative as a moral and political parallel, showing how rebellion against rightful authority is both sinful and destructive.

1.10.2. Contemporary Equivalents

Dryden overlays the biblical story onto the politics of late 17th-century England, especially the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681).

David = King Charles II

Like David, Charles is portrayed as a forgiving, wise, and God-appointed monarch.

Absalom = James Scott, Duke of Monmouth

The illegitimate but much-loved Protestant son of Charles II.

Charismatic and popular with the people, but with no legal claim to the throne.

Achitophel = Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury

A sharp, ambitious politician and leader of the Whigs.

He manipulates Monmouth, urging him to claim the crown and oppose his father’s lawful successor (James, Duke of York).

This allegorical mapping allowed Dryden to comment on current politics without directly attacking living figures, making the satire sharper yet safer.

1.10.3. Monmouth’s Legitimacy

The central tension of the allegory revolves around Monmouth’s doubtful legitimacy.

His mother, Lucy Walter, was a mistress of Charles II. Rumours circulated that Charles had secretly married Lucy Walter, which would have made Monmouth a legitimate heir.

However, Charles II repeatedly denied that such a marriage ever took place.

Since Queen Catherine of Braganza (Charles’s Portuguese wife) was childless, Whigs used Monmouth’s popularity and the uncertainty of succession to push him forward as an alternative to Charles’s Catholic brother, James, Duke of York.

Dryden seizes this controversy to emphasize the danger of ambition built on weak or illegitimate claims.

1.10.4. Absalom = Duke of Monmouth (James Scott)

Absalom in the Bible: David’s beloved son who rebels against him.

In the poem: Represents Monmouth, the illegitimate but Protestant son of Charles II.

Traits: Handsome, charismatic, and extremely popular with the people.

Legitimacy issue: Born to Lucy Walter (Charles’s mistress). Rumours of a secret marriage would have made him legitimate, but Charles denied this.

Allegorical meaning: Symbol of misguided ambition a good nature led astray by false hopes and manipulation.

1.10.5. Achitophel = Earl of Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper)

Achitophel in the Bible: Treacherous counsellor who persuades Absalom to rebel.

In the poem: Represents Shaftesbury, the clever and ambitious Whig politician.

Traits: Brilliant strategist, fiercely anti-Catholic, leader of the Exclusion movement.

Role: Tempts Monmouth/Absalom to claim the throne, exploiting his popularity.

Allegorical meaning: Embodiment of dangerous political ambition and manipulation. The true villain of the poem.

1.10.6. David = King Charles II

David in the Bible: The lawful, God-appointed king, merciful and wise.

In the poem: Represents Charles II, the Stuart monarch.

Traits: Shown as patient, forgiving, and divinely chosen to rule.

Role: Stands for legitimacy, stability, and divine authority in contrast to rebellion.

Allegorical meaning: Upholds the Divine Right of Kings rebellion against him is unlawful and sacrilegious.

1.10.7. In short:

Dryden’s allegorical framework rests on these three figures.

Absalom (Monmouth) = misguided ambition.

Achitophel (Shaftesbury) = cunning political manipulation.

David (Charles II) = lawful authority and divine kingship.

1.11. Conclusion:

John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel is more than a retelling of a biblical episode it is a sharp political commentary on the crises of late 17th-century England. By transforming Charles II, Monmouth, and Shaftesbury into King David, Absalom, and Achitophel, Dryden creates an allegorical framework that both defends the monarchy and exposes the dangers of ambition, manipulation, and rebellion.

The Popish Plot and the Exclusion Crisis provided the immediate backdrop for the poem, shaping public fear of Catholicism and giving rise to debates about legitimacy, succession, and loyalty. Dryden’s verse responds by affirming the divine right of kings and warning against the destructive influence of opportunistic leaders. His use of heroic couplets gave political debate poetic force, while his satire ensured that his arguments reached both court and common readers with clarity and wit.

The later Monmouth Rebellion (1685) tragically confirmed Dryden’s warnings: misguided ambition, once inflamed by manipulative counsel, could only end in downfall.

Ultimately, Absalom and Achitophel endures not only as a masterpiece of verse satire but also as a timeless reflection on power, politics, and human weakness. It shows how poetry can serve as both art and weapon defending authority, shaping public opinion, and preserving the political struggles of an age for future generations.